Introduction

The Quran reports that Solomon was granted the gift of speaking to animals and understanding their language: “Solomon inherited David and said: ‘O mankind! We have been taught the language of the birds; and we have been given of all things. Indeed, this is evident grace!’” (27:16). Later in the story, Solomon reviews his troops composed of jinn, humans, and birds: The armies of Solomon made up of jinn, humans, and birds were assembled before him, divided into groups. When they reached the Valley of the Ants, an ant said: “O ants, enter your dwellings, [lest] Salomon and his armies crush you unknowingly.” At these words, Solomon smiled and said: “Lord! Enable me to [thank You] for the favor You have bestowed upon me and my father. [Make] me perform pious deeds that please You, and admit me into Your mercy among Your righteous servants!” Then he reviewed the birds and said: “Why do I not see the hoopoe? Is it among the absent? I will severely punish it! or I will slay it! or it will bring me a clear argument.” But it had not been absent for long and said: “I have learned what you have not learned; and I bring you certain news from Sheba: I found that a woman is their queen, who has been endowed with all things, and she has a magnificent throne” (27:17–21). This curious episode, which involves mythological elements such as the ability to speak to animals, is not found in the Bible. We will show in this article that the Quran draws on several fables of Jewish origin.

Salomon’s gift

As mentioned, the Bible does not contain an episode similar to that of the Quran, in which Solomon gains the ability to understand and communicate with animals. According to biblical texts, Solomon possessed great knowledge of all things, including animals: “He spoke of trees, from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop that grows out of the wall; he also spoke of animals, of birds, of reptiles, and of fish” (1 Kings 4:33). However, as Steven Weitzman notes, Solomon’s ability to speak about animals led to a legend that he could actually talk with them. The legend is especially found in rabbinic writings. The Midrash reports that “Salomon heard the birds chirping, and he knew what they were saying; he heard the donkey braying, and he knew what it was saying.” A more elaborate version, closer to the Quranic account, appears in the Targum Sheni. This text is an Aramaic translation of the Book of Esther, supplemented with rabbinic commentaries and legends. It states: “He [Salomon] understood the language of birds and animals, deer and rams ran at his command...” (Targum Sheni 1:2). The story of the hoopoe (which in the Targum version is a rooster) teaching Solomon about the Queen of Sheba is also present: At that moment, the rooster was missing among the poultry, and could not be found. Then King [Salomon] ordered with anger that it appear before him, or he would destroy it. So the rooster responded and said to King Solomon: “Lord of the land, incline your ear and listen to my words. […] I have seen a land called Kitor [i.e., Sheba, the ancient capital of Yemen] […]. I saw a woman ruling over her people, and her name is Queen of Sheba” (Targum Sheni 1:4).

We see that Targum Sheni presents striking similarities with the Quranic account—similarities that extend beyond those we have highlighted. We will see in a future publication that the story of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba in the Quran is largely inspired by Targum Sheni. For now, we must specify the dating of Targum Sheni. Scholars have proposed various dates for the composition of the text, some of which are clearly post-Islamic, which would exclude Quranic dependence on Targum Sheni. However, recent research tends to agree on an earlier date for it. Literary analysis suggests its composition took place in Palestine during the early centuries of Christianity, during the periods of Jewish persecutions. A date in the 4th century, supported by multiple corroborating indices, seems very probable. Bernard Grossfeld has demonstrated that Targum Sheni was composed at the latest “at the very beginning of the seventh century but probably earlier, perhaps as early as the fourth century.” Comparing the stories in the Quran and Targum Sheni, Zishan Ghaffar reached a similar conclusion, emphasizing that “the Quranic account of the Queen of Sheba presupposes the account in Targum Sheni.” It appears clear from the most recent studies that Targum Sheni predates the Quran. Even in the improbable scenario that the opposite is true, it is worth noting that “the traditions contained in the Targum may be much older, comfortably preceding Islam.”

It should be noted that the idea that Solomon could converse with animals echoes in the Apocalypse of Baruch, an apocryphal book written shortly after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, of which at least one complete pre-Islamic manuscript exists. This text states that “even Solomon, during his reign, when he wanted to deliver a message or ask for anything, would send a bird that obeyed him precisely” (Apocalypse of Baruch, 77:25).

David, Solomon, and the myth of Orpheus

The Jewish legends about Solomon’s ability to converse with animals, which are found in the Midrash, Targum Sheni, and then in the Quran, have an even older antecedent. It is Psalm 151, which is not part of the biblical canon but is among the famous Dead Sea Scrolls discovered at Qumran, originating from the sect of the Essenes. This text bears an interesting similarity to a verse from the Quran concerning David (Solomon’s father): “Indeed, We granted favor to David from Us. O mountains and birds, repeat with him the praises of Allah” (34:10). The idea that mountains glorify God is also found in Psalm 151, as Marc Philonenko observed, who even speaks of “an Essene tradition in the Qur’an.” The passage reads: Hallelujah! Of David, son of Jesse. I was the youngest of my brothers and the youngest of my father’s sons. And he made me pastor of his flock and leader of his sheep. My hands made a musical instrument, and my fingers, a lyre; and I praised Yahweh, saying to myself: “Do the mountains not bear witness to Him? And do the hills not proclaim His praise?” (Psalm 151) As seen, the text here, like in the Quran, speaks of mountains and hills proclaiming God’s praises with David. The continuation of the text is also interesting for our purpose. David continues: “The trees valued my words, and the flock, my poems.” The theme of speaking with animals reappears, a gift Solomon inherited from his father David according to the Quran. The portrait of David communicating with animals is itself inspired by Orpheus in Greek mythology. Orpheus, the son of Apollo and Calliope, has the gift of charming animals, trees, and rocks with the melodious sound of his voice and lyre. Meanwhile, David is already depicted in the Bible as a musician. This prompted the author of Psalm 151 to portray David as a kind of Judaized Orpheus, who, like the famous Greek hero, has the ability to communicate with animals. Philonenko rightly asserts that, “as in the Qumran Psalter, it is David-Orpheus who sings in the Quran.” We see here how a theme of Greek mythology passed into Jewish literature before finding its place in the Quran.

Solomon and the ants

The Quranic passage cited in the introduction also mentions that Solomon and his armies flew over the “Valley of the Ants.” There, the queen of the ants told her fellow creatures to enter their dwellings out of fear of being crushed. The episode of the ants is part of an ancient Jewish fable that the Quran only vaguely preserves, comments Jan Van Reeth. The legend seems to derive from the Book of Proverbs in the Bible, which attributes wisdom to the ant: “Go to the ant, you sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise” (6:6). According to the legend, God presented Solomon with a flying carpet on which he traveled with the king of humans, the king of demons, the king of beasts (the lion), and the king of birds (the eagle). The story continues: One day, as he was flying over a valley filled with many ant colonies, Solomon heard an ant say to the others: “Enter your houses, or the legions of Solomon will destroy you.” The king asked why she was speaking this way. She replied that she feared that if the ants saw the legions of Solomon, they might abandon their duty of praising God, which would be disastrous for them. As Jules Janssens emphasizes, “there is an obvious link” between the Talmudic fable and the Quran. The Quranic episode shares most elements with it—the valley of the ants over which Solomon’s troops passed, and the queen of the ants ordering her subjects to return to their homes. However, in the Quran, the queen of the ants is worried about her people being literally crushed by Solomon’s armies, whereas in the Jewish legend, the destruction is spiritual: the ants might turn away from their duty to praise God.

The Quran and the language of animals

In the story we have studied, the Quran depicts a dialogue between a man, Solomon, and animals. The theme of speaking animals is part of the international classification of oral tale traditions (Aarne-Thompson 210) and appears in the mythologies of many cultures. One of the oldest examples is in Aesop’s fables from the 6th century BCE. Thus, the Quran aligns with the realm of folk and mythological literature.

The idea that humans can understand the “language” of animals, and vice versa, has long intrigued thinkers and philosophers. Egyptian priests believed that some baboons were capable of reading and writing, similar to humans. Baboons that arrived at the temple received a quill and a tablet, and their supposed abilities were tested. Our knowledge has advanced considerably since then. Today, it is known that animals do not possess a language comparable to ours. As ethologist Konrad Lorenz explains: Animals do not possess language in the proper sense of the word. Among higher vertebrates, and even among insects—particularly among species that live in social groups—each individual has a set of innate movements and sounds to express feelings. They also have innate ways to react to these signals whenever they see or hear them in a conspecific. Therefore, assuming, as the Quran does, that animals can have detailed dialogues and express themselves through words, sentences, or ideas akin to humans, reflects a pre-scientific conception that is incompatible with current scientific understanding.